This paper maps the geography of artificial intelligence (AI) innovation, exposure and use across European Union (EU) NUTS-2 regions using six complementary indicators. Findings reveal a spatial paradox: while AI exposure and worker-level use are relatively widespread, innovation and firm-level adoption remain concentrated in high gross domestic product (GDP), human capital-intensive hubs. A persistent implementation gap separates structural exposure from productive use, driven by institutional, organisational and capability-related frictions. Income and human capital are strongly associated with AI activity, while trade openness shows a negative relationship. Results point to the need for place-sensitive policies combining support for leading regions with targeted capability-building in lagging ones.
BUARQUE Bernardo;
CASAS Pablo;
FERNANDEZ MACIAS Enrique;
GONZALEZ VAZQUEZ Ignacio;
HYNES Ryan;
KOGLER Dieter F.;
SALOTTI Simone;
2026-06-29
ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD
JRC143682
1360-0591 (online),
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00343404.2026.2681659,
https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC143682,
10.1080/00343404.2026.2681659 (online),
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